58 - Basal cistern

The interpeduncular cistern (basal cistern or Fossa interpeduncularis) is a wide cavity where the arachnoid extends across between the two temporal lobes.

It encloses the cerebral peduncles and the structures contained in the interpeduncular fossa, and contains the arterial circle of Willis.


Diagram showing the positions of the three principal subarachnoid cisternæ. Interpeduncular cistern

57 - Sulci and Gyri of Brain

*Lesion in the broca's area (inferior frontal gyrus) causes broca's aphasia (motor aphasia/expressive aphasia).

*Lesion in the wernicke's aphasia (supramarginal gyrus) of the parietal lobe and upper part of temporal lobe.

56 - AIIMS May 2010 Anatomy Mcqs

1. Middle superior alveolar nerve is a branch of
a) Mandibular division of trigeminal nerve
b) Palatine division of maxillary nerve
c) Anterior nasal division of maxillary nerve
d) Inferior alveolar nerve

answer c. Anterior nasal division of maxillary nerve.
2. All the following muscles retracts the scapula EXCEPT
a) Trapezius
b) Rhomboid major
c) Rhomboid minor
d) Levator scapulae

answer d.

55 - Pain Insensitive and Pain Sensitive structures in Brain

A. Pain Insensitive structures in Brain : (Intracranial)
1. Brain parenchyma
2. Ependyma
3. Choroid plexus
4. Piamatter
5. Arachnoid
6. Dura over convexity of skull ( Dura around vascular sinuses and vessels is sensitive to pain)

B. Pain Sensitive structures in Brain :
B1. Intracranial :
1. Cranial venous sinuses with afferent veins
2. Arteries at base of brain and arteries of dura including

54 - Peroneus brevis

The peroneus brevis muscle (or fibularis brevis) lies under cover of the peroneus longus, and is a shorter and smaller muscle.

It arises from the lower two-thirds of the lateral surface of the body of the fibula; medial to the Peroneus longus; and from the intermuscular septa separating it from the adjacent muscles on the front and back of the leg.
The fibers pass vertically downward, and end

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"Arthritis" - Information on Glucosamine

Information on Glucosamine (Follow this Link)

Glucosamine is a natural compound that is found in healthy cartilage. Glucosamine sulfate is a normal constituent of glycoaminoglycans in cartilage matrix and synovial fluid.

Available evidence from randomized controlled trials supports the use of glucosamine sulfate in the treatment of osteoarthritis, particularly of the knee. It is believed that the sulfate moiety provides clinical benefit in the synovial fluid by strengthening cartilage and aiding glycosaminoglycan synthesis. If this hypothesis is confirmed, it would mean that only the glucosamine sulfate form is effective and non-sulfated glucosamine forms are not effective.

Glucosamine is commonly taken in combination with chondroitin, a glycosaminoglycan derived from articular cartilage. Use of complementary therapies, including glucosamine, is common in patients with osteoarthritis, and may allow for reduced doses of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents.

Evidence

*Key to grades

A: Strong scientific evidence for this use;

B: Good scientific evidence for this use;

C: Unclear scientific evidence for this use;

D: Fair scientific evidence against this use;

F: Strong scientific evidence against this use.

Uses based on scientific evidence	Grade*
Knee osteoarthritis (mild-to-moderate) Based on human research, there is good evidence to support the use of glucosamine sulfate in the treatment of mild-to-moderate knee osteoarthritis. Most studies have used glucosamine sulfate supplied by one European manufacturer (Rotta Research Laboratorium), and it is not known if glucosamine preparations made by other manufacturers are equally effective. Although some studies of glucosamine have not found benefits, these have either included patients with severe osteoarthritis or used products other than glucosamine sulfate . The evidence for the effect of glycosaminoglycan polysulphate is conflicting and merits further investigation. More well-designed clinical trials are needed to confirm safety and effectiveness, and to test different formulations of glucosamine.	A
Osteoarthritis (general) Several human studies and animal experiments report benefits of glucosamine in treating osteoarthritis of various joints of the body, although the evidence is less plentiful than that for knee osteoarthritis. Some of these benefits include pain relief, possibly due to an anti-inflammatory effect of glucosamine, and improved joint function. Overall, these studies have not been well designed. Although there is some promising research, more study is needed in this area before a firm conclusion can be made.	B
Chronic venous insufficiency "Chronic venous insufficiency" is a syndrome that includes leg swelling, varicose veins, pain, itching, skin changes, and skin ulcers. The term is more commonly used in Europe than in the United States. Currently, there is not enough reliable scientific evidence to recommend glucosamine in the treatment of this condition.	C
Diabetes (and related conditions) Early research suggests that glucosamine does not improve blood sugar control, lipid levels, or apolipoprotein levels in diabetics. Additional research is needed in this area.	C
Inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis) Preliminary research reports improvements with N-acetyl glucosamine as an added therapy in inflammatory bowel disease. Further scientific evidence is necessary before a strong recommendation can be made.	C
Pain (leg pain) Preliminary human research reports benefits of injected glucosamine plus chondroitin in the treatment of leg pain arising from advanced lumbar degenerative disc disease. Further scientific evidence is necessary before a firm recommendation can be made.	C
Rehabilitation (after knee injury) Glucosamine has been given to athletes with acute knee injuries. Although glucosamine did not improve pain, it did help improve flexibility. Additional research is needed to confirm these early findings.	C
Rheumatoid arthritis Early human research reports benefits of glucosamine in the treatment of joint pain and swelling in rheumatoid arthritis. In other research, glucosamine did not exert anti-rheumatic effects, but it did improve symptoms of the disease. However, this is early information, and additional research is needed before a conclusion can be drawn. The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis can be complicated, and a qualified healthcare provider should follow patients with this disease.	C
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders There is a lack of sufficient evidence to recommend for or against the use of glucosamine (or the combination of glucosamine and chondroitin) in the treatment of temporomandibular joint disorders.	C
High cholesterol Glucosamine does not appear to alter LDL or HDL levels in patients with chronic joint pain or diabetes.	D

53 - Triangle of Auscultation

*The triangle of ausculation of the lungs is situated posterior and superficial to the scapula.

*It has the following boundaries:
- Superiorly, by the Trapezius
- Inferiorly, by the Latissimus dorsi
- Laterally by the medial margin of the scapula

*The floor is partly formed by the Rhomboideus major and parts of 6th and 7th ribs.

*The triangle of auscultation is a space on the back where the

"Fight or Flight" - Sympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic Nervous System

In the course of phylogeny an efficient control system evolved that enabled the functions of individual organs to be orchestrated in increasingly complex life forms and permitted rapid adaptation to changing environmental conditions. This regulatory system consists of the CNS (brain plus spinal cord) and two separate pathways for two-way communication with peripheral organs, viz., the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system comprising extero- and interoceptive afferents, special sense organs, and motor efferents, serves to perceive external states and to target appropriate body movement (sensory perception: threat _ response: flight or attack). The autonomic (vegetative) nervous system (ANS), together with the endocrine system, controls the milieu interieur. It adjusts internal organ functions to the changing needs of the organism. Neural control permits very quick adaptation, whereas the endocrine system provides for a long-term regulation of functional states. The ANS operates largely beyond voluntary control; it functions autonomously. Its central components reside in the hypothalamus, brain stem, and spinal cord. The ANS also participates in the regulation of endocrine functions.

The ANS has sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. Both are made up of centrifugal (efferent) and centripetal (afferent) nerves. In many organs innervated by both branches, respective activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic input evokes opposing responses.

In various disease states (organ malfunctions), drugs are employed with the intention of normalizing susceptible organ functions. To understand the biological effects of substances capable of inhibiting or exciting sympathetic or parasympathetic nerves, one must first envisage the functions subserved by the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions (A, Responses to sympathetic activation). In simplistic terms, activation of the sympathetic division can be considered a means by which the body achieves a state of maximal work capacity as required in fight or flight situations.

In both cases, there is a need for vigorous activity of skeletal musculature. To ensure adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients, blood flow in skeletal muscle is increased; cardiac rate and contractility are enhanced, resulting in a larger blood volume being pumped into the circulation. Narrowing of splanchnic blood vessels diverts blood into vascular beds in muscle.

Because digestion of food in the intestinal tract is dispensable and only counterproductive, the propulsion of intestinal contents is slowed to the extent that peristalsis diminishes and sphincteric tonus increases. However, in order to increase nutrient supply to heart and musculature, glucose from the liver and free fatty acid from adipose tissue must be released into the blood. The bronchi are dilated, enabling tidal volume and alveolar oxygen uptake to be increased.

Sweat glands are also innervated by sympathetic fibers (wet palms due to excitement); however, these are exceptional as regards their neurotransmitter (ACh).

Although the life styles of modern humans are different from those of hominid ancestors, biological functions have remained the same.

Thanks & Best Regards,

Mukesh Patel

"Rest & Digest" - Parasympathetic nervous system.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responses to activation of the parasympathetic system.

Parasympathetic nerves regulate processes connected with energy assimilation (food intake, digestion, absorption) and storage. These processes operate when the body is at rest, allowing a decreased tidal volume (increased bronchomotor tone) and decreased cardiac activity. Secretion of saliva and intestinal fluids promotes the digestion of foodstuffs; transport of intestinal contents is speeded up because of enhanced peristaltic activity and lowered tone of sphincteric muscles.

To empty the urinary bladder (micturition), wall tension is increased by detrusor activation with a concurrent relaxation of sphincter tonus.

Activation of ocular parasympathetic fibers (see below) results in narrowing of the pupil and increased curvature of the lens, enabling near objects to be brought into focus (accommodation).

Anatomy of the parasympathetic system.

The cell bodies of parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the brainstem and the sacral spinal cord. Parasympathetic outflow is channeled from the brainstem (1) through the third cranial nerve (oculomotor n.) via the ciliary ganglion to the eye; (2) through the seventh cranial nerve (facial n.) via the pterygopalatine and submaxillary ganglia to lacrimal glands and salivary glands (sublingual, submandibular), respectively; (3) through the ninth cranial nerve (glossopharyngeal n.) via the otic ganglion to the parotid gland; and (4) via the tenth cranial nerve (vagus n.) to thoracic and abdominal viscera. Approximately 75 % of all parasympathetic fibers are contained within the vagus nerve. The neurons of the sacral division innervate the distal colon, rectum, bladder, the distal ureters, and the external genitalia.

Acetylcholine (ACh) as a transmitter.

ACh serves as mediator at terminals of all postganglionic parasympathetic fibers, in addition to fulfilling its transmitter role at ganglionic synapses within both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions and the motor endplates on striated muscle. However, different types of receptors are present at these synaptic junctions.

Thanks & Best Regards,

Mukesh Patel

52 - Coronary arteries and Coronary veins

*The coronary arteries and the veins that drain into the coronary sinus. The posterior interventricular branch (PIV), although usually a branch of the right coronary artery (RC), may arise from the circumflex branch (C) of the left coronary artery (inset). In B, the left marginal vein can be seen ascending to join the great cardiac vein. The posterior vein of the left ventricle ascends and the

51 - Anatomical Snuff Box

*Anatomical snuff box is a triangular depression on the lateral aspect of wrist immediately distal to the radial styloid process, that becomes prominent when thumb is fully extended.

*The Contents of anatomical snuff box are :
- Cephalic vein
- Radial artery
- Superficial radial nerve

*Floor of the anatomical snuff box is formed by :
- Radial styloid
- Scaphoid (smooth convex articular surface

50 - Medial and Lateral Collateral Ligaments of Ankle

1. MEDIAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENT (OR DELTOID LIGAMENT) OF ANKLE :

*It consists of two sets of fibers, superficial and deep. Both parts have a common attachment above to the apex and margins of the medial malleolus. The lower attachment is indicated by the name of the fibers.

*Superficial fibers :
- The most anterior (tibionavicular) fibers pass forward to be inserted into the tuberosity of the

49 - Medial and Lateral Menisci of Knee joint

*The menisci of the knee joint are two pads of cartilaginous tissue which serve to disperse friction in the knee joint between the lower leg (tibia) and the thigh (femur). They are shaped concave on the top and flat on the bottom, articulating with the tibia. They are attached to the small depressions (fossae) between the condyles of the tibia (intercondyloid fossa), and towards the center

48 - Pelvic bone

An Autobiography

Wings of Fire - Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam

http://books.google.com/books?id=XImr5Bw_XnYC&lpg=PP1&dq=wings%20of%20fire&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=&f=false

47 - Abdominal aorta mcqs with answers

1q: Ovarian artery arises from
a. Anterior part of abdominal aorta
b. Lateral part of abdominal aorta
c. Posterior part of abdominal aorta
d. None

answer b. lateral part.

2. All are lateral branches of abdominal aorta, except ?
a. Right testicular artery
b. Left renal artery
c. Inferior mesentric artery
d. Middle suprarenal artery

answer c. Inferior mesentric artery.

3. Cystic artery arises